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Curriculum
Theory
Curriculum
& Phenomenology
Based
on Pinar et al. (2008), Chapter 8
Under Construction
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As I was, a while ago, conducting some quantitative educational research**, I felt there was something wrong. The study employed a survey design which involved administering a questionnaire to a group of students. After I had reviewed the literature, I came up with the conclusion that the survey design was the best way to proceed. I was even convinced it was. However, while I was administering the questionnaire, it just hit me! There was something missing! The results of a study should be valid and reliable! But how could they be, when they are only based on a questionnaire that the students, I felt as I was watching them answering questions, couldn’t have taken seriously! Some were tired; others were sleepy, bored, uninterested, or inconvenienced… they were just, let’s say, circling answers. Whether those were honest answers, or at least answers that followed deep thought about the questions, how would I ever know? As I was reading this chapter about phenomenology, I couldn’t help but feel, “Yes! This is so right!” Quantitative educational research does consider people as objects rather than subjects; it does disregard their real points of view. It aims at predicting with “certainty!” But what kind of certainty can we reach when we are just based on impersonal surveys? Pinar is right when he questions the ethics of those who try to predict with certainty, when he critiques the findings of empirical research. I totally agree with him. There is no black or white in life. We all live in “grey!” How can we, just based on random answers given by bored students who indeed became “objects,” how can we be certain of the outcome? Empiricism, when used alone, is not reliable. How can it be, when, in order to be “reliable,” it relies, as Grumet (1976) says, on passive people who cannot relate their own experience; when it gives no value to the individual who is at the core of the research? Phenomenological research, on the other hand, focuses on the individual's understandings and attitudes toward behavior, instead of only on behavior itself which, outside its real context, is not worth much. This kind of research, phenomenological inquiry, should not be disregarded in education. It should serve, along with quantitative research, as a basis for decisions about curriculum. In this paper, we shall expose, first, what phenomenological inquiry is and how phenomenologists view experience and the lifeworld; second, the phenomenological foundations of currere; and, last but not least, curriculum language and research according to Huebner, van Manen, and Aoki.Phenomenological Inquiry: Experience and the lifeworld
Phenomenological inquiry is a form of interpretive inquiry that investigates human perception and experience. Although it can seem messy, mystical, and superficial, it is, in reality, according to Pinar et al. (2008), "a disciplined, rigorous effort to understand experience profoundly and authentically" (p. 405). There are quite a few phenomenological methodologies; among them are the hermeneutical, interpretative, philosophical, and a combination of phenomenological and poststructural. Pinar et. al (2008) believe it is crucial, in our current educational crisis, to try to understand curriculum phenomenologically, to focus, in our educational inquiry, “on human perception and experience" (p. 405). Consciousness is very important for phenomenologists who take it differently from the way it usually is; they think of it as related to the person's intention when performing a specific act: how he/she perceives, judges, believes, remembers, or imagines it. According to Greene (1973), phenomenologists think of consciousness as equivalent to one's "'experienced context' or lifeworld" (as cited in Pinar et al., 2008, p. 406); it influences everything they do, including research and teaching. Therefore, when conducting research, phenomenologists "focus on the biographic situation of each individual" (p. 406). In other words, the fact that they believe that everything they themselves do revolves around their lifeworld makes them understand how important a lifeworld is and, hence, try to take everyone else's into consideration. However, since people are usually unaware of their lifeworld because they are "immersed in it" (p. 406), phenomenologists settle for people's 'biographic situation.' In order for people to become aware of their lifeworld, to reflect on (bracket, i.e. set aside) what they take for granted, their preconceived notions, they need to be shocked, to experience difficulties and problems which take them away from their natural attitude, from what they take for granted, so that they can recognize their own lifeworld.Phenomenological Foundations of Currere
Currere, the Latin infinitive form of curriculum, is a form of autobiographical curriculum theory, a form of phenomenological curriculum research which "focuses on the educational experience of the individual as reported by the individual" (p. 414). When practicing the method of currere, we focus on lived experience; and this is based on Edmund Husserl who claims that certainty does not result from passive consciousness (which is used in empirical research), but from active, immediate, and intense accounts of lived experience on which any knowledge should be based. Husserl criticizes the way empiricism portrays consciousness, claiming that, in phenomenology, consciousness is not passive. Phenomenology studies immediate consciousness and tries, in its description, to understand concrete thoughts and connect them to other thoughts. Lived experience covers what is happening in the present as related to the immediate past and future, emanating from what was retained or is foreshadowed. The research method of currere does not seek knowledge (conclusions and generalizations) as an end product; it seeks to dissect this knowledge, to uncover its foundations, where it comes from. By following the method of currere, the researcher strives to phenomenologically describe both the lived experience (object) and the subject, going back in time to trace the path of what might have led to this experience, trying to ignore any preconceived concepts. The subject here is highly engaged in the world, actively trying to relate the lived experience to its probable foundation. According to this method, the researcher, in addition to drawing on the subject's lived experience, also draws, for secondary support, on the literature, in order to come up with a new conclusion, a new reality. So, the research method of currere offers the opportunity to study the lived experience and the context in which this experience was lived, taking into consideration the impact of the individual's environment and past experience. Self-report is very important, when practicing the method of currere, and includes commitment to a subjective interpretation which includes personal experience and feelings, without recurring to any prestructure.Curriculum According to Huebner, van Manen, & Aoki
Huebner considers learning and objectives two myths constraining curriculum language; they are outdated and need to be replaced by "valued educational activity" (p. 417). In order to assess the value of an educational activity, Huebner devised five value frameworks that curricular workers can use: 1) the technical framework that he associates with the Tyler Rationale (setting objectives, selecting learning experiences, organizing those experiences, and evaluating them); 2) the political framework associated with Michael Apple's work; 3) the scientific framework associated with quantitative research; 4) the aesthetic framework which includes three elements: psychical distance; wholeness, balance, design, and integrity; and symbolic meaning felt and lived by educators, and which would portray vitality and significance of life; 5) the ethical framework which is important since, in educational activity, people interact with each other; it can include metaphysical and religious language. Huebner states that "the present curricular language is much too limited .... The present methodologies which govern curricular thought must eventually give way" (p. 419). Curricular language and research must include studies of the practical, day-to-day life as it is lived by teachers and students. Van Manen states that, in order for a curriculum to respect the lifeworld of both the teachers and students, it must be: 1) oriented, making theory inseparable from life as lived; teachers must play an active role in it (observe, listen, and relate to children); 2) strong: teachers should tailor it to their students' needs; 3) rich: filled with fascinating real life experiences; 4) deep: filled with rich descriptions that pave way to interpretations. According to Aoki (1986), curriculum-as-plan is very important for administrators; but it is curriculum-as-lived-experience that matters the most in the classroom.In conclusion, after having covered what phenomenological inquiry is and the importance of experience and the lifeworld; the phenomenological foundations of currere; and, curriculum according to Huebner, van Manen, & Aoki, I believe it is a must to include phenomenology in our curricular language and research. Phenomenology, if followed, at least alongside quantitative research, does not only result in a new type of curriculum, but also, and more importantly, in a new way of life. In order to be able to follow it, we need to reflect on everyday life and what we take for granted; we need to shift to the preconceptual, to the body and the world around us. One point is worth mentioning here, though: I am not advocating a total paradigm shift; one paradigm shift necessarily breeds another. Balancing between the two methods of research is, I believe, the best way of proceeding, at least so that we don’t feel, when conducting research, that there is something wrong; something missing! Quantitative research does have its advantages; but it will always be lacking without the balance with qualitative research; with phenomenological inquiry.
Note: Introduction modified for privacy issues.
Full text notes about phenomenology (Pinar, chapter 8)
[Paraphrased]Phenomenologists view experience as a separate entity, separate from language and thought. They distinguish between experience itself and the way we interpret it, we think and talk about it (unlike poststructuralists who do not make any distinction between experience and thought, who view them as intertwined). Pinar et. al (2008) believe it is crucial, in our current educational crisis, to try to understand curriculum phenomenologically.
What is phenomenological inquiry? It is a form of interpretive inquiry that investigates humans' perceptions of their experience, then it describes those perceptions. According to Pinar et al (2008), phenomenology can be messy, mystical, and superficial, but they believe it is "a disciplined, rigorous effort to understand experience profoundly and authentically" (p. 405). Phenomenologists reject rationalism (logic) and empiricism (statistics) because they "fail to account for the world as experienced by the human being.… [they] fail to depict thought as it occurs in lived or 'inner' time" (p. 405). Phenomenological investigators question how things actually start to happen in someone's lived experience, how they are induced. Consciousness is very important for the phenomenologist, but it is taken differently from the way it usually is; it is related to the person's intention when performing a specific act: how they perceive, judge, believe, remember or imagine it. According to Greene (1973), consciousness for phenomenologists is equivalent to one's "'experienced context' or lifeworld" (as cited in Pinar et al., 2008, p. 406); it influences everything they do. Therefore, they also "focus on the biographic situation of each individual" (p. 406). In other words, the fact that they believe that everything they themselves do revolves around their lifeworld makes them understand how important a lifeworld is and, hence, try to take everyone else's into consideration. However, since people are usually unaware of their lifeworld because they are "immersed in it" (p. 406), phenomenologists settle for people's 'biographic situation.' In order for people to become aware of their lifeworld, to reflect on (bracket, i.e. set aside) what they take for granted, their preconceived notions, they need to be shocked, to experience difficulties and problems which take them away from their natural attitude, from what they take for granted, so that they can recognize their own lifeworld. Phenomenologists suppose that individuals can separate their personal knowledge from their life experiences.
According to Van Manen (1984), phenomenological research has five characteristics: 1) it investigates people's direct, lived experience, lifeworld (at a deeper level than the everyday world); 2) it "investigates the the most significant aspect of experiences with the objective of reflecting on what is taken for granted; it searches for the experience and meaning of events versus their frequency and asks 'what' questions rather than 'how' questions, focusing on the nature of the experience of learning; 3) it focuses on thoughtfulness related to "what it feels like and means to be alive"; 4) it produces knowledge only to shed the light on what it means to be human, and this knowledge is related to historical, cultural, and political traditions, stressing "subjectivity and intersubjectivity, especially attitudes, values, and beliefs..."; 5) it always "embodies a poetic quality" not interested in summaries or results, but in magical, enchanting, and original tellings (as cited in Pinar et al., 2008, p. 407). When conducting phenomenological research, we need to understand it beyond the mere lived experience so that we can analyze this experience and extract new meaning to it from our synthesis. The categories of phenomenological curriculum research are usually different from those of regular educational research. They can fall under language, temporality, consciousness; or under teaching (such as the "tone" of teaching in which van Manen is interested) and reading. However, the point of this type of research would be "to attune or orient ourselves to children and teaching" (p. 409). There are two important phenomenological themes: the secret place and temporality.
Critique of Mainstream Social Science: Aoki, Grumet, Jardine
Mainstream social science has been critiqued by many phenomenological researchers; one of them is Ted Aoki (1988) who accused quantitative educational research of being mainly interested in control, separating person and world, hence manipulating things and people who are considered objects rather than subjects, whose point of view is disregarded. The quantitative (empirical-analytic) method is also critiqued for the fact that it does not take into consideration "the socioeconomic conditions of the students, the historical moment, and the geographic-cultural 'place' where the class occurs" (p. 411).Pinar states that human conduct cannot be predicted with certainty since humans have "will, imagination, and the capacity to choose in light of their own 'horizons'" (p. 411). Furthermore, he questions the ethics of those who try to predict with certainty, critiques the findings of empirical research with regards to "management by objectives, competency-based education, criterion-based testing, and behavioral objectives in which students become categories" (p. 411). Aoki (1988) also claims that mainstream research transforms people into objects and reduces their subjectivity. Science is the second-order experience; academic disciplines and school curricula should be derived from first-order experience which is characterized by subjectivity, by the insider's experience of those who live within the here and now, within the situation. Reality is no longer separate from the observed. Grumet (1976) claims that empiricism is not reliable because it focuses only on quantifiable behaviors and relies on passive people who cannot relate their own experience: it gives no value to the individual who is at the core of the research. On the other hand, phenomenological research focuses on the individual's understandings and attitudes toward behavior, instead of only on behavior itself which, outside its real context, is not worth much. Jardine (1987) critiques the fact that mainstream social science relies on Piaget's notion of reflection, which Jardine considers an abstraction, and on Piaget's notion of self-understanding, which Jardine believes has nothing to do with the individual's interpretation that would guarantee real understanding. Jardine preaches instead phenomenology's practical self-understanding and reflection which are concrete, are embedded in the individual's life history, attitudes, beliefs and interpretations as they really are.Phenomenological Foundations of Currere
Currere, the Latin infinitive form of curriculum, means to run the course. It is a form of autobiographical curriculum theory, a form of phenomenological curriculum research which "focuses on the educational experience of the individual as reported by the individual" (p. 414). When practicing the method of currere, we focus on lived experience; and this is based on Edmund Husserl who claims that certainty does not result from passive consciousness (which is used in empirical research), but from active, immediate, and intense accounts of lived experience on which any knowledge should be based. Husserl criticizes the way empiricism portrays consciousness, claiming that, in phenomenology, consciousness is not passive. Phenomenology studies immediate consciousness and tries, in its description, to understand concrete thoughts and connect them to other thoughts. Lived experience covers what is happening in the present as related to the immediate past and future, emanating from what was retained or is foreshadowed. The research method of currere does not seek knowledge (conclusions and generalizations) as an end product; it seeks to dissect this knowledge, to uncover its foundations, where it comes from. By following the method of currere, the researcher strives to phenomenologically describe both the lived experience (object) and the subject, going back in time to trace the path of what might have led to this experience, trying to ignore any preconceived concepts . The subject here is highly engaged in the world, actively trying to relate the lived experience to its probable foundation. According to this method, the researcher, who draws mainly on the subject's lived experience, also draws on the literature for secondary support in order to come up with a new conclusion, a new reality. The research method of currere offers the opportunity to study the lived experience and the context in which this experience was lived, taking into consideration the impact of the individual's environment and past experience. Self-report is very important, when practicing the method of currere, and includes commitment to a subjective interpretation which includes personal experience and feelings, without recurring to any prestructure.Curriculum Language: Huebner and Smith
Huebner considers learning and objectives two myths constraining curriculum language; they are outdated and need to be replaced by "valued educational activity" (p. 417). In order to assess the value of an educational activity, Huebner devised five value frameworks that curricular workers can use: 1) the technical framework that he associates with the Tyler Rationale (setting objectives, selecting learning experiences, organizing those experiences, and evaluating them); 2) the political framework associated with Michael Apple's work; 3) the scientific framework associated with quantitative research; 4) the aesthetic framework which includes 3 elements: psychical distance; wholeness, balance, design, and integrity; and symbolic meaning felt and lived by educators and which would portray vitality and significance of life; 5) the ethical framework which is important since, in educational activity, people interact with each other. It can include metaphysical and religious language. Huebner states that "the present curricular language is much too limited ... The present methodologies which govern curricular thought must eventually give way" (p. 419). Curricular language and research must include studies of the practical, day-to-day life as it is lived by teachers and students. Smith (1988) criticized currere claiming it focuses too much on the exploration of the individual self and ignores dialogue and other people's experiences. Gadamer and Smith state that in order for understanding to occur, we cannot only focus on the present; the past and future are also crucial. The past lies in the history (whatever is present behind appearances-- it is eidetic), and the future is characterized by hope.Teaching: Aoki and van Manen
Phenomenologists view teaching as an orientation toward "being," versus "doing." Doing implies just doing your job, impersonally; when you stop doing the job, you just stop being a teacher. On the other hand, being implies living the job. Even if you stop teaching, you will always be a teacher: it is just who you are: you love it, you are passionate about it, you practice it even when not in a classroom, even when not being paid. According to van Manen, pedagogy, or teaching, neither involves process (an art) alone nor content (a science) alone; it is a combination of both, more specifically, it involves constantly operating in between. According to Aoki (1986), curriculum-as-plan is very important for administrators, but it is curriculum-as-lived-experience that matters the most in the classroom; what matters is "how the teachers' 'doings' flow from who they are" (p. 428). Unlike mainstream research which objectifies children, phenomenological research aims at restoring the relation between teacher and child so that teachers view the child biographically, as a whole, with his/her past experience and his/her future, and this "via the pedagogical relationship the teacher has with him or her" (p. 429).Van Manen states that, in order for a curriculum to respect the lifeworld of both the teachers and students, it must be: 1) oriented, making theory inseparable from life as lived; teachers must play an active role in it (observe, listen, and relate to children); 2) strong: teachers should tailor it to their students' needs; 3) rich: filled with fascinating real life experiences; 4) deep: filled with rich descriptions that pave way to interpretations. Later, van Manen adds the notion of tact and pedagogical thoughtfulness: being oriented to children, preserving their space, protecting what is vulnerable, preventing hurt, mending what is broken, strengthening what is good, enhancing what is unique, sponsoring personal growth and learning so as to leave a positive mark on the child. Van Manen also tackles the relation between pedagogy and politics, specifying that tact requires worldliness, standing up for political views in which we believe.
Other researchers such us Margaret Olson (1989) recommend personalizing the classroom so that we make it our own and feel comfortable in it. Jardine (1988) recommends that teachers strive to do what is best for their students. Ceremonies, celebrations, and atmosphere are very important in a child's life. Bollnow (1989) talks about educational love which incorporates patience, hope serenity, humor, goodness, along with strictness and sensitive watchfulness. He also stresses the importance of trust which is "a foundation that must exist if the child is to develop properly" (p. 433).
Reading and Writing:
Unlike mainstream reading research that is decentered and obsessed with procedure and protocol, a phenomenology of reading requires "centering" this activity to the reader, so that there will be interaction between reader and text. When deciphering the meaning of a text, both thought and action are involved: the reader's interpretations of the texts guide his/her understanding of it. According to David Bleich (1878), students draw from their own schema to constructively read and understand the text. So, understanding or interpreting a text involves a dual act between the reader and the text. The reader uses his/her background knowledge and the text suggests information. The outcome is affected by both. In this approach, students are more active and engaged.As for writing, it can also be experienced phenomenologically. Van Manen praises the usefulness of anecdotes which are concrete, never abstract. Furthermore, writing involves thinking; it helps us put our thoughts into words, thus analyze and deepen them. Writing helps make us who we are. Van Manen (1989) lists five paradoxal aspects of phenomenological writing: first, it separates us from yet brings us closer to what we know; second, it distances us from yet draws us more closely to the lifeworld; third, it decontextualizes thought from practice yet returns it to praxis; fourth, it abstracts our experience of the world yet concretizes our understanding of it; finally, it objectifies thought into print yet subjectifies our understanding of what truly engages us.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, phenomenology is not just another approach to adopt, it is a totally different way of viewing language and curriculum, and it involves a big shift in thought. Phenomenology, if followed, does not only result in a new type of curriculum, but also, and more importantly, in a new way of life. In order to be able to make this shift towards it, we need to reflect on everyday life and what we take for granted, we need to shift to the preconceptual, to the body and the world around us.
NEW...Final Paper:...NEW
"Emotions and Emotional Intelligence (EQ) in Curriculum Theory:
on Incorporating EQ Skills in Teacher Education"
- Emotions and Education as an Impossible Profession
- Emotions in Curriculum Theory: Based on Taubman, Powell & Barber, Salvio, and Silin
- Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
- Criticisms of Emotional Intelligence
- On Incorporating EQ Skills in Teacher Education
Back to "Nada's ESL Island" || Back to Curriculum Theory
Foundations of Curriculum Theory: Notes & Reflections
Analysis of the Role of Teachers as Articulated in Kliebard, Tyler, and Apple Texts
The ESL Reading Curriculum: New Lenses
Education, One of the Impossible Professions
Integrating Technology in the Classroom- TPACK
Handbook of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) for Educators
Instructional Systems Design - ISD
What are the Skills that a College Dean Needs to Have
in order to be a State-of-the-Art Dean?
Click below for an answer....
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